CNN'S COLD WAR GLOSSARY

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-A-

ABM	Antiballistic missiles, designed to detect and intercept incoming nuclear missiles.
Apollo-Soyuz	First manned space flight conducted jointly by the United States and the Soviet Union during the era of detente. On July 17, 1975, the U.S. Apollo spacecraft and Soviet Soyuz vessel docked for two days of joint operations.
Arms race	Competitive buildup of nuclear weapons between the United States and Soviet Union that began after the Soviets exploded their first atomic weapon on August 29, 1949 -- ending the U.S. nuclear monopoly.
Atlas	Developed in the 1960s, these intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) were housed in deep underground concrete silos built to withstand a nuclear attack.
Atomic bomb	First nuclear weapon used in wartime, by the United States on Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945; an A-bomb explosion is created by the splitting of atomic nuclei and results in a huge release of energy.

-B-

B-1	Strategic U.S. heavy bomber with nuclear capacity, developed in the 1980s; unlike the B-52, the B-1 is capable of flying intercontinental missions without refueling.
B-52	Strategic U.S. heavy bomber with nuclear capacity, powered by eight turbojet engines; its range is extended by in-flight refueling. B-52s were the mainstay of U.S. nuclear forces in the 1950s.
Baghdad Pact	Middle Eastern defense pact established in 1955 by Great Britain, Turkey and Iraq; would later include the United States, Iran and Pakistan.
Baikonur Cosmodrome	Soviet missile-testing facility where rockets, spacecraft and satellites are launched; located in current-day Kazakhstan.
Bay of Pigs	Landing area on Cuba's south coast where an American-organized invasion by Cuban exiles was defeated by Fidel Castro's government forces April 17-20, 1961.
Beatlemania	Frenzy over the 1964 U.S. arrival of the British pop group The Beatles, whose music and style loosened American culture from the constraints of the 1950s.
Berlin airlift	Successful effort by the United States and Britain to ship by air 2.3 million tons of supplies to the residents of the Western-controlled sectors of Berlin from June 1948 to May 1949, in response to a Soviet blockade of all land and canal routes to the divided city.
Black Panthers	Militant African-American political organization founded in Oakland, California, in 1966 by Huey Newton; the group advocated revolution to achieve black equality in the United States.
Bolsheviks	Precursor to the Russian Communist Party, they seized power in Russia in October 1918 under Lenin's leadership.
Bomber gap	In the 1950s a number of U.S. military officials warned about a "bomber gap," alleging the Soviet Union had more planes than the United States that were capable of delivering nuclear weapons.
Broken arrow	Any incident that includes the seizure, theft, loss or accidental destruction of a nuclear device.
Bunny girl	Waitresses who worked in Playboy Clubs dressed in bustiers, satin ears and cotton tails; clubs opened in the 1960s as the U.S. sexual revolution was beginning. Celebrities who worked as bunnies before launching their careers include actress Lauren Hutton and rock star Deborah Harry.

-C-

CFE	Conventional Forces in Europe treaty, signed November 19, 1990, by leaders of all NATO and Warsaw Pact countries; it reduced troop levels and the number of non-nuclear weapons on the continent.
Charter 77	Main Czechoslovakian dissident group, formed on January 6, 1977, when 230 intellectuals published a human rights manifesto in Western newspapers.
Checkpoint Charlie	Border site between East and West Berlin where U.S. and Soviet tanks faced each other in a tense standoff in October 1961 before both sides withdrew.
CIA	Central Intelligence Agency, established in 1947 by Truman; conducts U.S. intelligence and counterintelligence missions overseas.
Civil rights movement	Mass movement for political, social and economic equality by African Americans during the 1960s, mostly in the segregated cities of the Southern United States.
COMECON	Council for Mutual and Economic Cooperation, formed in 1949 as a Soviet version of an economic community. Moscow's answer to the Marshall Plan.
COMINFORM	International communist information bureau established by Stalin in 1947; dissolved by Khrushchev in 1956.
Containment	Policy established by the Truman administration in 1947 to contain Soviet influence to what it was at the end of World War II.
Contras	U.S.-backed counter-revolutionary forces opposed to Nicaragua's leftist Sandinista government, which came to power in 1979.
Cruise	U.S. missiles that use wings, a turbofan and computerized maps to fly like an airplane to its target; can fly at altitudes of 50 feet.
Cuban Missile Crisis	Week of international tension in October 1962 when the world stood at the brink of nuclear war, after the Soviet Union placed nuclear weapons on Cuba and the United States responded with a blockade of the island on October 22. The Soviets agreed six days later to withdraw the weapons.
Cultural Revolution	Mass campaign in China ordered by Mao Tse-tung in 1966, aimed at renewing popular support for revolutionary communism; the nation nearly fell into civil war as so-called bourgeois elements in cultural circles and the government were purged.

-D-

D-Day	On June 6, 1944, the Western Allies launched the biggest sea-borne invasion in history against the Nazis in France; it opened a second European fighting front to relieve the Soviets.
DEFCON	System of defense conditions used by the U.S. military, ranging from DEFCON 5, the lowest state of alert, to DEFCON 1, indicating war.
Detente	A thaw in Cold War relations between the United States and Soviet Union from 1969-1975, highlighted by the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) treaty and the Helsinki Accords.
Dien Bien Phu	Site of a French military garrison near Hanoi and where the French colonials were defeated by Vietnamese independence fighters on May 7, 1954.
DMZ	Demilitarized zone between North and South Korea since 1953, when the Korean War ended. It is one of the most heavily fortified borders in the world, often described as the last frontier of the Cold War.

-E-

Eisenhower Doctrine

Pledge by Eisenhower in 1957 to provide military and economic aid to any Middle Eastern country fighting communism.

-F-

Fallout shelter	Underground concrete structures, often stocked with food and water supplies, designed to withstand fallout from a nuclear attack; popular in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s.
First strike capability	The capacity to launch a nuclear strike without fear of a nuclear counterattack from the enemy; the United States enjoyed first strike capability over the Soviet Union until the late 1950s.
Flexible response	The U.S. policy of maintaining both conventional and nuclear forces to have flexibility in dealing with communist threats.
FNLA	National Front for the Liberation of Angola, a U.S.-backed faction that fought against the Soviet-backed MPLA for control of Angola after the Portuguese withdrew in 1975.

-G-

GDR	German Democratic Republic, or East Germany; it was proclaimed in October 1949 and encompassed the Soviet occupation zone in postwar Germany.
Geneva Agreement	Signed by the Soviet Union, United States, Afghanistan and Pakistan in 1988, it called on the Soviets to withdraw their troops from Afghanistan by February 1989.
Geneva Conference on Indochina	Established a North and South Vietnam, with a border along the 17th parallel, following the defeat of French colonial forces at Dien Bien Phu.
Glasnost	Policy of openness initiated by Gorbachev in the 1980s that provided increased opportunities for freedom of speech, association and the press in the Soviet Union.
Great Leap Forward	Chinese economic plan launched by Mao Tse-tung in 1958 that included farm collectivization and state-sponsored industrialization. It caused massive famine in the early 1960s.
Great Society	Domestic U.S. social program initiated by Johnson in the 1960s that included civil rights legislation, improved health care and a general "war on poverty."

-H-

Helsinki Accords	Declaration signed in 1975 by the United States, Canada and every European nation except Albania, that postwar European borders were permanent and that the countries would respect their citizens' human rights and freedoms.
Ho Chi Minh Trail	A network of dirt roads and trails that carried supplies from North Vietnam through Laos, Cambodia and South Vietnam to Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces fighting to topple the Saigon government.
Hollywood Ten	Members of the Screen Actors Guild who refused to answer questions before the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1947, during the height of U.S. anti-communist hysteria.
Hot line	Direct phone line between Washington and Moscow established after the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Hungarian Revolution	Mass uprising that began with reformist efforts by Hungarian Communist Party leader Imre Nagy; crushed by Soviet troops and tanks November 3-4, 1956.
Hydrogen bomb	First tested in 1952 by the United States and in 1953 by the Soviets; a nuclear weapon hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

-I-

ICBM	Intercontinental ballistic missiles; land-based nuclear weapons with a range of more than 3,500 miles.
INF Treaty	Signed by Reagan and Gorbachev in 1987, the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces treaty eliminated an entire class of missiles deployed in Europe: the U.S. cruise and Pershing II missiles and Soviet SS-20s.
Iran hostage crisis	In January 1979, an Islamic revolution led by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini forced the U.S.-backed leader, Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, to flee. Students seized the U.S. Embassy on November 4, 1979, and held 52 Americans hostage for 444 days before releasing them unharmed.
IRBM	Intermediate-range ballistic missiles; can reach targets between 600 and 3,500 miles away.
Iron Curtain	Term used by Churchill in 1946 to describe the growing East-West divide in postwar Europe between communist and democratic nations.

-J-

Jupiter

Class of U.S. intermediate-range ballistic missiles developed in the 1950s by a team led by Wernher Von Braun, who developed V-1 and V-2 rockets for Nazi Germany.

-K-

Kent State	On May 4, 1970, at Kent State University in Ohio, four students protesting the Vietnam War were shot to death by Ohio National Guard troops; the incident galvanized popular support for the U.S. anti-war movement.
KOMSOMOL	Communist organization for Soviet youths aged 14 to 28; patterned after the Communist Party, its goals were to indoctrinate and train future members.

-L-

La Coubre	Freighter carrying arms and munitions that exploded in Cuba's Havana harbor in 1959, killing more than 100 people; CIA sabotage was suspected but never proved.
Limited Test Ban Treaty	1963 agreement signed by the United States, Great Britain and the Soviet Union that prohibited the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, space and underwater.
Linkage	U.S. negotiating policy developed by Kissinger to offer concessions on technology and trade in exchange for a more responsible Soviet foreign policy.
Los Alamos	U.S. nuclear research and testing facility in the New Mexico desert where the world's first atomic bomb was developed during World War II.

-M-

MAD	Mutual assured destruction, a Cold War theory in which the United States and Soviet Union each used its ability to launch a nuclear counterattack to deter a first strike from the other side.
Malta	Summit between Bush and Gorbachev on warships near the Mediterranean island of Malta in December 1989, weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall; both leaders agreed to pursue further conventional and nuclear weapons cuts.
Manhattan Project	Code name for U.S. and British development of the first atomic bomb; it began in 1944 at Los Alamos, New Mexico.
Marshall Plan	Postwar European recovery plan organized by U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall that was also intended to bolster Western democracy; nearly $13 billion was spent from 1948-1952.
Massive retaliation	Eisenhower administration policy that pledged U.S. attacks in response to Soviet expansion; relied heavily on nuclear, rather than conventional, military forces.
McCarthyism	U.S. campaign to root out communists in government and society during the late 1940s and 1950s led by Sen. Joseph McCarthy; accusations were often based on rumors and half-truths.
Minutemen	Land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) developed by the United States in the 1960s; deployed in silos, they replaced dependency on bombers.
MIRV	Multiple independently targeted re-entry vehicle; first deployed in the 1960s, MIRV technology enabled missiles to carry a number of warheads aimed at separate targets.
Missile gap	Charges by critics of the Eisenhower administration that the United States had fallen behind the Soviet Union in the production of nuclear missiles, especially intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).
MPLA	Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola, one of three groups that vied for power after Portugal withdrew in 1975; members of the leftist group received military training in Cuba and arms from Moscow.
Mujahedeen	U.S.-supported Islamic rebels opposed to the Soviet-backed 1979 coup in Afghanistan. Term means "soldier of god."
MX	U.S. intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) with a range of 5,000 miles and 10 warheads, each with an explosive yield of 500 kilotons.

-N-

National Defense Education Act	After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the United States began spending $2 billion a year on higher education in an effort to win the "brain race" with the Soviets.
NATO	North Atlantic Treaty Organization, begun in 1949 as a military and political alliance of European nations and the United States and Canada designed to protect Western Europe from a Soviet attack.
Nazi-Soviet Pact	Stalin and Hitler signed this 1939 agreement after the Soviet leader decided he needed to buy time against the Nazi onslaught. The pact led to the division of Poland.
No Cities/ Counterforce	Short-lived proposal developed by Kennedy's defense secretary, Robert McNamara, under which U.S. nuclear missiles would only target Soviet military forces and not cities.
NORAD	Formed in 1958 by the United States and Canada and based in Colorado, the North American Aerospace Defense Command monitors the skies for an attack on the continent.
NSC-68	Written in 1950 by the U.S. State Department's Paul Nitze, National Security Council Report 68 predicted the Soviets could launch a nuclear attack on the United States by 1954 and recommended an increase in U.S. spending for nuclear and conventional arms.
Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty (1972)	Gave the U.N. International Atomic Energy Agency the added job of inspecting treaty states for evidence that nuclear materials designed for peaceful purposes were being diverted to military use.
Nuclear winter	Theory that, immediately following a major nuclear war, radioactive smoke and dust would fill the atmosphere, blocking sunlight, lowering temperatures and destroying agriculture.

-O-

Open Skies	Proposal by Eisenhower to let the superpowers see each other's military blueprints and installations and place reconnaissance units in each other's territory. Khrushchev's rejection led to the U.S. deployment of the U-2 spy plane.
Operation Ivy	On November 1, 1952, the world entered the thermonuclear era with the U.S. detonation of the first hydrogen bomb; its force was equivalent to more than 10 million tons of TNT -- 1,000 times the power of the Hiroshima bomb.
Ostpolitik	West German Chancellor Willy Brandt's "Eastern Policy" of improving ties with Soviet bloc nations; it led to treaties with Poland, the Soviet Union and East Germany and won Brandt the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.

-P-

Paris Peace Accords	Final treaty following the Paris Peace Talks from May 1968 to January 1973 that led to the U.S. pullout from the war in Vietnam and, ultimately, victory by the North Vietnamese.
PB Success	Code name for a 1950s CIA operation that used disaffected exiles and peasants to overthrow the government of Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz after his land reform program threatened the holdings of the U.S.-based United Fruit Company.
Peaceful coexistence	Term used by Khrushchev in 1963 to describe a situation in which the United States and Soviet Union would continue to compete economically and politically without launching a thermonuclear war.
People's Liberation Army	Welcomed in Beijing as heroes in 1949 after the revolution in China, the country's armed forces were reorganized in the 1960s -- a move that led to the Cultural Revolution.
Perestroika	Gorbachev's policy of economic restructuring in the Soviet Union in the 1980s.
Pershing	Class of U.S. nuclear missiles deployed in West Germany in the 1970s and '80s; the Pershing 1A, with a limited range and huge explosive yield, was replaced with the Pershing II following public opposition to the 1A and Soviet deployment of the mobile SS-20 missiles.
Ping-Pong diplomacy	After the United States lifted travel restrictions to China in 1971, Beijing invited a U.S. table-tennis team to play in China. The visit helped improve ties between the two countries and led in part to Nixon's historic 1972 visit to China.
Polaris	The first submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), they were developed by the United States and were soon replaced by the more advanced Poseidon missiles. Britain, though, chose to rely on upgraded Polaris missiles.
Politburo	Executive committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Potsdam	Third wartime meeting of the Big Three Alliance leaders, Churchill, Truman and Stalin; the conference highlighted East-West differences on Poland, the occupation of Germany and German reparations as the war drew to a close.
Prague Spring	Brief period of political reform and freedom in Czechoslovakia in 1968 under the leadership of Alexander Dubcek; it ended in August 1968 with Dubcek's arrest and the massing of 650,000 Soviet-backed troops in the country.

-R-

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty	Started by the United States in the early 1950s in an effort to reach the people of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the service moved its headquarters from Munich to Prague in 1995 and now transmits 700 hours of programming weekly in 23 languages.
RB-47	U.S. warplane shot down in 1960 after it allegedly entered Soviet airspace. A year later, after Kennedy's election, Khrushchev released the plane's pilots.
Red Army	Armed forces of the Soviet Union, formed after the Bolshevik revolution from the rebel Red Guards and the ruins of the Imperial Army.
Red Guards	Organized student battalions in China during the Cultural Revolution that met en masse with Mao Tse-tung and were encouraged to carry his "little red book" and rebel against "capitalist roadsters." In pre-Soviet Russia, it was also the name of the Bolshevik army.
Redstone	Surface-to-surface ballistic missile developed by Wernher Von Braun's team and tested successfully in August 1953; with a range of 500 miles, it was used to lift the first U.S. astronaut into space.
Refusniks	Soviet Jews and others who were denied exit visas and were persecuted for trying to leave the U.S.S.R.
Reykjavik summit	Gorbachev and Reagan's Iceland meeting in October 1986; it was noted for the Soviet leader's two surprise proposals: cut strategic nuclear forces in half, and eliminate all nuclear weapons in 10 years. His plan, designed to stem the United States' "Star Wars" initiative, failed.
Rolling Thunder	Bombing campaign against North Vietnam launched by Johnson in response to a Viet Cong attack on Pleiku air base that killed eight Americans and wounded hundreds more.
Russian revolution	The 1917 Bolshevik uprising against the czarist autocracy; it was an effort to turn a peasant society into a new kind of democratic, collectivized country.

-S-

SALT	Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in the late 1960s and '70s that led to the signing of the SALT accords in 1972 by Nixon and Brezhnev; SALT I limited each country's ballistic missile defense and froze the deployment of intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) launchers.
SALT II	Negotiated by three U.S. administrations and signed by Carter and Brezhnev in 1979, the treaty set limits on the number of strategic missile launchers and other systems each country could deploy. Both countries largely followed SALT II even though it was never ratified by the U.S. Senate.
SDI	Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative (1983), also known as "Star Wars," called for a land- or space-based shield against a nuclear attack. Although SDI was criticized as unfeasible and in violation of the Antiballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, Congress approved billions of dollars for development.
SEATO	Created after the Korean War to contain communism, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization lacked British and French support and proved ineffective during the Vietnam War. It was disbanded after the victory of communist North Vietnam over the U.S.-backed South.
Second strike capability	A country's ability to launch a nuclear counterattack if it survives a first strike; it was believed to be a key to deterrence.
Silent majority	Term used by Nixon in a 1969 address, referring to the 70 to 75 percent of the U.S. population that polls showed had confidence in him despite highly visible protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
Six-Day War	Israel's surprise offensive launched on June 5, 1967, to pre-empt a planned Arab invasion; the brief war destroyed Egypt's air force on the first day and left Israel with the Sinai, Golan Heights, eastern Jerusalem and the West Bank.
Solidarity	First autonomous labor union in the Soviet bloc; it grew out of mass protests at the Lenin shipyards in Gdansk, Poland, in summer 1980. Its leader, Lech Walesa, was later elected president of Poland.
Space race	Battle between the United States and the Soviet Union for dominance in outer space.
Sputnik	First artificial Earth satellite, it was launched by Moscow in 1957 and sparked U.S. fears of Soviet dominance in technology and outer space. It led to the creation of NASA and the space race.
SS-4	Type of Soviet ballistic missile positioned in Cuba that set off the Cuban Missile Crisis.
SS-20	Soviet missile with a limited range of 5,000 miles, it was capable of attacking China, the Mideast, South Asia and Western Europe. It was eliminated by the INF Treaty (1987).
START	Strategic Arms Reductions Talks began in 1982 and resulted in a 1991 treaty in which the United States and Soviet Union agreed to reduce their strategic nuclear forces by about 30 percent.
Stasi	East German secret police; it kept files on 5 million East Germans -- a third of the population -- and infiltrated the West German military and government.
Stinger	Shoulder-launched missiles the United States sent to the Mujahedeen in their battle against the Soviets in Afghanistan. The heat-seeking Stinger could detect approaching aircraft exhaust four miles away and 5,000 feet above.
Suez Crisis	Britain, France and Israel attacked Egypt to regain control of the Suez Canal after Cairo nationalized it in 1956. U.N. and U.S. opposition and Soviet threats of intervention ended the assault.

-T-

Tehran Conference	November 1943 meeting between Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt, where the Allies agreed to open a Western front against Nazi Germany to take pressure off the Soviets.
Tet Offensive	In January and February 1968, during the lunar new year Tet, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces launched a series of attacks in South Vietnam; seen by many as the turning point in the Vietnam War.
Titan	U.S. intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that entered service in 1963 and were dismantled in 1987 under the SALT I treaty. Titan II missiles had a 7,500-mile range and carried nine-megaton warheads.
Thermonuclear device	Also known as a hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb, it can be hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than an atomic bomb and can cause death and destruction for miles around. Radioactive contamination could last for years and be carried around the world.
38th parallel	Dividing line between North and South Korea first established to separate Soviet and U.S. occupation zones after Japan's defeat in 1945; the Korean War began in 1950 after North Korean communists crossed the parallel into South Korea.
Tonkin Gulf	North Vietnamese patrol boats allegedly fired on the USS Mattox in the Gulf of Tonkin on August 2, 1968. Five days later, Congress approved the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving Johnson authority to send troops to Vietnam.
Trapos	Transport police in East Berlin who helped seal the border with West Berlin in August 1961.
Trident	Submarine-launched ballistic missiles armed with multiple warheads; Trident II missiles had a range of more than 4,000 miles and carried 10 to 15 warheads each.
Truman Doctrine	First established in 1947 after Britain no longer could afford to provide anti-communist aid to Greece and Turkey, it pledged to provide U.S. military and economic aid to any nation threatened by communism.
TU-95	Soviet jet bomber capable of delivering a nuclear device to the United States; 10 of the bombers were displayed for the West at the 1955 Moscow Air Show.

-U-

U-2	Spy plane capable of taking pictures from as high as 80,000 feet; it was heavily used for U.S. intelligence gathering before the development of satellite reconnaissance in the 1970s.
UNITA	One of three groups vying for power in Angola in the 1970s, the U.S.-backed National Union for the Total Independence of Angola was established in southern Angola under the leadership of Jonas Savimbi.

-V-

Velvet Revolution	Mass protests in Czechoslovakia, led by playwright Vaclev Havel, that culminated in the fall of communism in that country in November 1989.
Viet Cong	Common name for the National Liberation Front, the communist guerrillas in South Vietnam who sought to reunite the country with North Vietnam.
Vietnamization	Plan adopted by the Nixon administration to turn over control of the Vietnam War to South Vietnam while U.S. troops withdrew.
Virgin Lands	Campaign launched by Khrushchev to cultivate Soviet grasslands in central Asia; Khrushchev boasted the Soviets would overtake the Americans in wheat production.
Vladivostok	Signed by Ford and Brezhnev in 1974, the Vladivostok accords set a limit of 2,400 for the total offensive nuclear weapons each side could possess.

-W-

War of the Trousers	Influence of Western fashion on the Soviet Union in the late 1950s and early '60s was evident in the popularity of "narrow trousers." Special patrols were organized to root out such influences.
Warsaw Pact	Soviet-led Eastern European defense organization established in Warsaw, Poland, on May 14, 1955; the alliance countered the U.S.-led North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Watergate	Scandal that led to Nixon's resignation in 1974 after it was discovered the Republican White House planned and covered up a burglary at Democratic Party headquarters.
White guards	Anti-Bolshevik forces who lost the Russian Civil War to the Reds; they included monarchists, constitutional democrats and socialists.
White House (Moscow)	Russian parliament building that became the rallying point for Yeltsin and crowds of Muscovites during the failed coup to overthrow Gorbachev.

-Y-

Yalta

Second meeting of the Big Three leaders, Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt; they met in the southern Russian town of Yalta February 4-11, 1945, to discuss the occupation of postwar Germany and Eastern Europe.

-Z-

Zero Option

Western German peace movement proposal -- later adopted by the Reagan administration -- that called for the ban of all European intermediate-range nuclear forces.

Sources: COLD WAR, Jeremy Isaacs Productions; Encyclopedia of the Cold War, Thomas S. Arms; The Cold War, 1945-1991, Benjamin Frankel, editor; The Cold War: A History, Martin Walker; Cold War Chronology, Soviet-American Relations 1945-1991, Kenneth L. Hill; Encyclopedia Britannica.